Ancient DNA reveals the multiethnic structure of Mongolia’s first nomadic empire

After being shrouded in obscurity for a long time, the world’s first nomadic empire, the Xiongnu, is finally emerging through meticulous archaeological excavations and new evidence from ancient DNA. Originating on the Mongolian steppe 1,500 years prior to the Mongols, the Xiongnu empire became one of the most influential political forces in Iron Age Asia, extending its influence from Egypt and Rome to Imperial China. The Xiongnu’s economy was based on animal husbandry and dairying, and they were renowned for their nomadic lifestyle, relying on horses to build their empire. Their expertise in mounted warfare made them swift and formidable adversaries, and their legendary clashes with Imperial China ultimately led to the construction of the Great Wall.

In contrast to their neighboring civilizations, the Xiongnu did not develop a writing system, resulting in a lack of historical records about them, which have mostly been written and passed down by their adversaries and enemies. These accounts, mainly recorded by chroniclers of the Han Dynasty, offer little insight into the Xiongnu’s emergence as a political force, their social structure, or their origins. While recent studies using archaeogenetics have traced the Xiongnu’s political origins to a sudden migration and amalgamation of diverse nomadic groups in northern Mongolia circa 200 BCE, such discoveries have generated more queries than solutions.

In an effort to gain a deeper comprehension of the Xiongnu empire, an international research team consisting of scientists from the Max Planck Institutes for Evolutionary Anthropology (MPI-EVA) and Geoanthropology (MPI-GEO), Seoul National University, the University of Michigan, and Harvard University, carried out a thorough genetic analysis of two imperial elite Xiongnu burial sites located along the western border of the empire. The cemeteries include an aristocratic elite burial ground at Takhiltyn Khotgor and a local elite cemetery at Shombuuzyn Belchir.

Juhyeon Lee, the lead author of the study and a PhD student at Seoul National University, stated that despite knowing that the Xiongnu possessed a considerable amount of genetic diversity, the absence of genomic data at the community level made it challenging to determine if this diversity emerged from a mosaic of locally uniform communities or if local communities were genetically diverse themselves. The research team aimed to understand how this genetic diversity was organized at varying social and political scales and how it related to power, wealth, and gender.

The rise of a multiethnic empire

The study revealed that both cemeteries had individuals with high genetic diversity, similar to that observed across the entire Xiongnu Empire. This finding confirms that the empire was multiethnic with diverse communities at different social and political levels. However, the researchers observed that the high genetic diversity was mainly stratified by social status. The individuals with the lowest status had the highest genetic diversity, indicating that they were likely from distant regions of the empire or even beyond. On the other hand, the local and aristocratic elites buried in wood-plank coffins within square tombs and stone ring graves had lower genetic diversity and higher proportions of eastern Eurasian ancestries, suggesting that the elite status and power were concentrated among certain genetic subgroups within the broader Xiongnu population. Nevertheless, even elite families seemed to have intermarried with newly incorporated groups, particularly at Shombuuzyn Belchir, to strengthen ties.

This study sheds new light on the complex social and political dynamics of the Xiongnu Empire and provides insights into how they maintained their power and influence over such a vast and diverse territory. The findings also highlight the value of interdisciplinary approaches that combine archaeology, ancient DNA, and other fields to reconstruct the past and deepen our understanding of human history.

Powerful women in Xiongnu society

This finding challenges the traditional notion of male-dominated societies and suggests that women in the Xiongnu Empire had significant political power and influence. This is consistent with textual and archaeological evidence, which suggests that Xiongnu women were often involved in diplomacy and played active roles in warfare. The prominence of women in Xiongnu society may have also played a role in their success in incorporating new territories and groups into their empire, as marriage alliances and political maneuvering by women were likely important tools in achieving these goals.

This finding sheds new light on the role of women in the Xiongnu Empire and challenges traditional views of gender roles in ancient societies. The prominence of women in high status positions within the Xiongnu Empire suggests that they played a crucial role in political and economic decision-making, as well as in the maintenance and transmission of cultural traditions. This evidence supports the idea that ancient societies were not uniformly patriarchal and that women held positions of power and influence in various cultures and time periods.

Children in Xiongnu society

Additionally, the analysis revealed that infant and juvenile burials were clustered together in specific areas of the cemeteries, indicating that children may have been segregated based on age and/or kinship status. The researchers also found evidence of differential burial practices based on sex, with more elaborate grave goods and higher status burials for females, further highlighting the important social roles played by women in Xiongnu society.

“These findings offer a rare glimpse into the socialization of Xiongnu children and suggest that Xiongnu society placed high value on age- and gender-specific social roles,” says Dr. Warinner.

The legacy of the Xiongnu today

The study also sheds light on the complex social and political organization of the Xiongnu, as well as the enduring influence of their traditions on subsequent empires in the region. The high degree of genetic diversity and heterogeneity observed among Xiongnu communities suggests that the empire was a multiethnic entity that incorporated disparate groups through marriage and kinship ties. The prominent role of Xiongnu women in political and economic life, as well as the differential treatment of children based on age and sex, provide further insights into the social and cultural organization of the Xiongnu. Ultimately, the study underscores the enduring legacy of the Xiongnu in shaping the political and cultural landscape of Inner Asia.